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ABSTRACT
The plant kingdom offers a wide range of medicinal values. The efficacy of the stem of the plant Newbouldia leavis were studied to ascertain its antifungal properties against fungal. In this study, antifungal properties of Newbouldia laevis were investigated using potato Dextrose Agar-Diffusion method. It was aimed at assess the antifungal properties of the stem extract against selected fungal. After the investigation, result showed that: The yield of extracts with each solvent for Enthanol yield at 100ml, 150ml and 200ml respectively while Acqueous yields = 0. For the sensitivity of the fungal, Newbouldia laevis extracts; for ethanol disc, the zone of inhibition for candida albicans was …; …. And …… for aqueous disc, there was no sensitivity. Conclusively, the research data provides basis for developing the plant product into useful drug that may resolve issues on drug resistance. The plant stem should be used as raw materials and also for the production of medicine that can be used in diseases caused by these fungi.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page
Declaration
Certification
Dedication
Acknowledgement
Abstract
Table of contents
List of tables
List of figures
Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Background of study
1.2 Statement of the study
1.3 Objectives of the study
1.4 Significance of the Study
1.5 Scope of the study
1.6 Definition of terms
Chapter Two: Literature Review
2.1 Taxonomical classification of Byophyllum Pinnatum –
2.2 Description of Bryophyllum pinnatum
2.3 Phytochemicals of Bryophyllum pinnatum
2.4 Pharmacological activities
2.4.1 Antimicrobial activities
2.4.2 Antidiabetic activities
2.4.3 Anti-ulcer Activity
2.4.4 Anti-convultant Activity
2.4.5 Hapatoprotective Activity Nepthroprotective Activity
2.4.6 Antihypertensive Activity
2.4.7 Analgesic, anti-inflammatory and wound healing Activity
2.4.8 Immunomodilatory Effect.
2.4.9 Anti-leishmanial Activity
2.4.10 Anti-Histaminic and Anti Allergic Activity.
2.4.11 Anticancer Activity
Chapter Three: Materials and Methods
3.1 Collection of Bryophyllum pinnatum
3.2 Extraction of Bryophyllum pinnatum
3.3 Sterilization of Glassware
3.4 Test Organism
3.5 Purification of Test Organism
3.6 Preparation of Media
3.6.1 Preparation of Mueller Hinton Agar (MHS)
3.6.2 Preparation of Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA)
3.7 Preparation of Microbial Suspension (McFaland Standard)
3.8 Inoculation of media
3.9 Preparation of Extract Solution.
3.10 Sensitive Test Using Agar well diffusion method
3.11 Measurement of zones on inhibition.
Chapter Four: Results and Discussion
4.1 Results
4.2 Discussion
Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Recommendation
References
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The use of plants as medicine is an ancient practice common to all societies especially the African society. This practice continues to exist in the developing nations. It is on this basis that researchers keep on working on medicinal plants in order to produce/develop the best medicines for physiological uses.
Medicinal higher plants have been used extensively as a source for numerous active constituents for treating human diseases and they, as well, have high contain of therapeutic value (Nostro v., 2000).
Plants and their essential oils have been associated with antimicrobial activity since prehistoric times (Shelef, 1983; Chang 1995). Plants have been endowed with innate ability to synthesize aromatic substances such as phenols and their derivatives, these secondary metabolites have therapeutic tendencies. Due to the potential health benefit of plants of medicinal value (Gomez – Flores et al., 2008), medicinal plant extracts in recent times, have been developed an76d proposed for use in food as natural antimicrobials (Hsieh et al., 2001). Some of their metabolites have been successfully used in the treatment and prevention of infectious diseases, cancer or in stimulating the immune system. The biological activities reported to have been associated with plants and plant derived compounds can be categorized according to the disease area, which include Anticancer activity, Nervous system Activation/suppression, Cardiovascular/metabolic, Antimicrobial activity immune modulating activity and Anti-inflammatory activity etc.
Considering therefore, the growing interest in herbal medicine for its economic values, ethno medicine has become an increasing part of academic research in Nigeria and elsewhere. In this regard, literatures and researchers have documented the application of plant products in medicine and for general physiological purposes (Usman and Osuyi, 2007).
The medicinal value attributed to plants is a function of the bioactive phytochemical constituents that produce definite physiological action on the human body (Akimoladun et al., 2007). The most important of these plants bioactive chemical constituents are flavoids, alkaloids, tannins and phenolic compounds (Okwu, 2001; Edeoga et al., 2005). Phytochemicals are natural bioactive compounds of secondary metabolite found in plants that work with nutrients and fibres to act as a defence system against disease. These phytochemicals are divided into two groups, which are primary and secondary constituents; according to their functions in plant metabolism. Primary constituents comprise common sugars, amino acids, proteins and chlorophyll while secondary constituents consists of alkaloids, terpenoids and phenolic compounds (Krishnaiah et al., 2009) and many more such as flavonids, tannins, etc.
Newbouldia laevis (P. Beauv) seem or boundary tree called variously as; ‘Aduruku’ in Hausa, ‘Ogirisi’ in Igbo and ‘Akoko’ in Yoruba languages is a medium sized angiosperm which belongs to the Bignoniaceae family. It grows to a height of about 7 – 8 (up to 15) metres, more usually a shrub of 2 – 3 metres, many-stemmed forming clumps of gnarled branches (Arbonnier, 2004). The plant is often grown as an ornamental, has shiny dark green leaves, bears large showy terminal purple flowers and easily propagated by cutting. It is more or less a sacred or symbolic tree, well planted as a fence and often permitted to grow into a stockade. Newbouldia laevis is native to tropical Africa and grows from Guinea Savannahs to dense forests, on moist and well-drained soils. It inhabits the secondary forest extending from Senegal to Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola (Arbonnier, 2004).
In Nigeria, the bark is chewed and swallowed for stomach pains, diarrhea and toothache. The plant has been found to be effective in the treatment of elephantiasis, dysentery, rheumatic swellings, syphilis, constipation, pile and as a vermifuge to round worms. It has also been found useful for earache, sore feet, chest pain, epilepsy and children’s convulsion (Akunyili, 2000). The leaf, stem and fruits have been used for febrifuge; wound dressing and stomach ache (Iwu, 2000).
Earlier studies on the leaves and bark of Congolese Newbouldia leavis revealed the absence of flavonoids; saponins, quinines , terpenes or steroids. Recent phytochemical studies on the root, root bark and stem of this plant also revealed the presence of alkaloids, quinoid and phenyl propanoid amongst others.
Antimicrobial compounds are known to be present in the extract of some medicinal plants. Although there are a number of reports on isolation of antimicrobial substances from plants, nothing appears to be well known about those of Newbouldia laevis. Because of the wide use of Newbouldia laevis in some parts of Nigeria, an attempt has been made to investigate the scientific basis of the traditional medicinal use.
Scientifically, Newbouldia laevis has been reported to have medicinal value ranging from anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-fungi, analgestic and wound healing properties. Specifically, the stem bark mixed with clay and red pepper has been reported to be effective against pneumonia, fever, cold, cough and for treating different illness like bone lesions (Idu et al, 2009). This paper provides basic information on the antimicrobial activities of Newboudia Laevis. In this investigation, the antimicrobial properties of stem extract of this plant against fungal were investigated. Therefore, based on the comparable properties of Newbouldia Laevis, this study was designed to investigate the antimicrobial properties of Newbouldia laevis stem extract on fungi.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The practice of traditional medicine is as old as the origin of man. The use of plants in traditional medicine referred to as herbalism or simply botanical medicine falls outside the mainstream of the Western or Orthodox medicine. It has been estimated that two third of the world population (mainly in the developing countries) rely on traditional medicine as their primary form of health care. The use of traditional medicine cannot fade out in the treatment and management of diseases in African continent and this could be attributed to sociocultural and socio-economic life styles; lack of basic health care and qualified personnel (Elujoba et al., 2005). Plants contain active components such as anthraquinones, flavonoids, glycosides, saponins, and tannins etc which possess medical properties that are harnessed for the treatment of different diseases. The active ingredients for a vast number of pharmaceutically derived medications contain components originating from phytochemicals in plants. These substances that contain the healing property are known as the active principles and are found to differ from plant to plant. Among these plants are the vegetables whose part(s) are eaten as supporting food or main dishes and which could be aromatic, bitter or tasteless (Galm and Shen, 2007).
A very large area of Nigeria ecological zones is populated with many plant species which have found their usefulness either directly or indirectly for humans. The medicinal values of many of these plants cannot be over emphasized in the light of oral traditions and folklores from the distant past that have continued to extol the healing virtues of these plants and their extracts. Generally, the active principles found in Newbouldia leavis can be extracted and used in different 17 forms which include infusions, syrups, concoctions, decoctions, infused oils, essential oils, ointments and creams in the treatment/management and prevention of some diseases (WHO, 2003). Plants have been used medicinally in all civilization. Despite the effectiveness of chemically synthesized medicine, screening for plant drugs will continue for the development of new pharmaceuticals to resolve both old and new health problems. The plant kingdom offers a wide range of natural antioxidants and medicinal values. Dietary plants with proven antioxidant properties may function as a direct anti-radical chain breaker of free radical propagation, interaction with transition metals, and inhibition of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generating enzymes. Newbouldia leavis is one of such medicinal plants whose medicinal values have stood the test of time. Although the antimicrobial activity of the leaves and root extract on bacteria have been reported by Owolabi et al. (2011), a study of the stem extract on fungi has not been considered. Hence, this present study was designed to tackle these issues.
1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
This study is aimed at investigating, the antimicrobial properties of the extract of Newbouldia laevis stem on fungal with special interest in candida albicans and aspergillus niger so as to possibly justify its medical efficacy in the treatment of Candidiasis and Aspergillosis.
The Specific objectives of the research are as follow:
- To determine qualitatively and quantitatively the phytochemical constituents of the stem extracts of Newbouldia laevis.
- To assay the effect of Newbouldia leavis ethanol stem extracts on candida albicans.
- To determine the effect of Newbouldia laevis stem extracts on aspergillus niger.
- To evaluate some histopathological effects of Newbouldia laevis stem.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
At the conclusion of this research work, the medicinal uses of Newbouldia laevis stem extracts will be discovered. It is going to be of great benefit that antifungal properties of Newbouldia laevis stem are supported.
1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The scope of work to be done in this study include the collection of plant materials and extraction procedures, the fungal activities test, preparation of fungal to be use. All these will be carried out in this study.
1.6 DEFINITION OF RELEVANCE TERMS
Antibiotics: This is a substance derived from a mould or bacterium or produced synthetically, that destroys (bactericidal) or inhibits the growth of other microorganisms and is thus used to treat infections.
Antimicrobial: This is an agent that kills microorganisms or inhibits their growth.
Antifungal: This is an agent that interferes with the growth and reproduction of fungal.
Efficacy: This is used to measure how well treatment works in clinical trials or laboratory studies. It is also a capacity for producing a desired result or effect.
Ethno botany: Is the scientific study of culture (ethnology) and plant (botany) in respect of the relationship that exist between people and plants.
Inhibition: This simply means something that restraints, block or suppresses.
Microorganisms: Microorganisms are those organism that are too minute to be seen with the unaided eyes except with the aid of a microscope.
Phytochemical: These are chemical compounds that occur naturally in plants. Some are responsible for color of plants and smells.
Pharmacology: This is the branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action.
Pharmacological: This is the science of drugs, including their composition, uses and effects.
Therapy: This is the attempted remediation of a health problem, usually following a diagnosis.
Synthetic: This is a substance or material made artificial by a chemical reaction that is not genuine.
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